High-resolution projection-based 3D bioprinting

Projection-based 3D printing is a vat polymerization printing method that works by generating bitmaps as dynamic masks to project onto a photosensitive material surface for layer-by-layer curing. Projection-based 3D printing has the highest resolution/time for manufacturing ratio among all 3D printing technologies; however, projection-based 3D bioprinting, which uses bioinks as printing materials that contain cells and/or biomolecules, suffers from low printing resolution, with a substantial gap between the theoretical and the actual resolution. In this Review, we summarize the steps and challenges to achieve high-resolution projection-based 3D bioprinting and provide pragmatic optimization strategies for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications.